What is matter ? what are the states of matter?

What is matter ? what are the states of matter? 

"Any thing that has mass and occupies volume in space is known as matter."

Matter is made up of microscopic particles (now we call them molecules). These molecules posses kinetic energy and have inter-molecular forces (attraction & repulsion). These two factors of molecules decides the states of matter. 

On the earth matter is present in three states, as given below -

1. Gas

2. Liquid

3. Solids

What are properties of matter ? 

The macroscopic and microscopic properties of matter are given briefly in below table -

Property	State of matter
	Gas	Liquid	Solid	Remark
Macroscopic properties
Volume & shape	Gas does not have fixed volume or shape	Liquid has fixed volume but does not have fixed shape	Solids have fixed volume & shape	At fixed temperature and pressure
Density	Low	Medium	High	Exceptions are not rare eg. Ice has lower density than water
Effect of pressure	If pressure is applied to gases they turned to liquids	If pressure is applied to liquids they maintain the liquid state (liquids are non - compressible)	-	At fixed temperature
Effect of temperature	Gases expand with increase in temperature. Gas condense with decrease in temperature	Liquid vaporizes with increase in temperature. Liquid solidifies with decrease in temperature	Solid melts with increase in temperature.	At fixed pressure
Surface tension	Low	Medium	High	-
Microscopic properties
Order of molecular arrangement	Very low	Medium	Medium to High	-
Kinetic energy of molecules	Very high. The molecules are in random motion, speed past one another	Medium. The molecules are in random motion, skip one another	Low. The molecules can only vibrate at their fixed position.	-
Inter molecular force of attractions	Very low	Medium	High	-
Inter molecular spaces	Very high. The molecules are far apart from one another	Medium. The molecules have hardly any void spaces.	Low. The molecules are compactly arranged with respect to one another.	-

Various Antiviral Drugs and their use

Various Antiviral Drugs and their use

Antiviral	Used in or against
Acyclovir	Herpes simplex, Herpes Zoster
Amantadine	Prevention and treatment of influenza A
Ganciclovir	CMV (cytomegalovirus) retinitis
Oseltamivir	Treatment of influenza A, B
Rimantadine	Influenza A virus
Ritonavir, stavudine, Indinavir, zidovudine,	HIV Infection
Lamivudine	HIV Infection combined with zidovudine
Saquinavir	HIV Infection in combined with other drugs
Amprenavir, Ritonavir, Nelfinavir, Nevirapine, Delaverdine	HIV Infection in combined with other antiviral

Anti-Microbial Drug's Classification based on chemical structure of drugs

Anti-Microbial Drug's Classification based on chemical structure of drugs

Class of drugs	Examples	Uses  of drugs
Sulphonamides & related drugs	Sulphadiazine, Sulfones, Dapsone, Para-amino salicylic acid
Dia-amino pyrimidine	Trimethoprim, pyrimethamine
Quenolones	Nalidixic acid, Norfloxacin, Ciprofloxacin, Gatifloxacin
β-lactum Antibiotics	Penicillins, Cephalosporins, Monobactams, Carbapenems
Tetracycline	Oxytetracycline, Doxycycline
Nitrobenzene derivatives	Chlorumphenicol
Amino glycosides	Streptomycin, Gentamycin, Neomycin
Macrolide antobiotics	Erythromycin, Clarithromycin, Azithromycin
Linosamide antibiotics	Lincomycin, Clindomycin
Glycopeptide antibiotics	Vancomycin, Teicoplanin
oxazolidinone	Linezolid
Polypeptide antibiotics	Polymyxin B, Colistin, Bacitracin
Nitrofuran derivatives	Nitrofurantoin, Furazolidone
Nitroimidazole	Metranidazole, Tinidazole
Nicotinic acid derivatives	Isoniazid, Pyrizinamide, Ethionamide
Polyene antibiotics	Nystatin, Amphotericin B, Hamycin
Azole derivatives	Micronazole, Fluconazole, Kitoconazole, Clotrimazole
Others	Rifampin,conf'er --. Spectinomycin, Sod.fusidate, Cycloserin, Viomycin, Ethambutol, Thiacetazone, Clofazimine, Griseofulvin

Asthma

• Asthma
• Bronchial asthma

Asthma is a disorder that causes the airways of the lungs to swell and narrow, leading to wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing.

• Causes, incidence, and risk factors

Asthma is caused by inflammation in the airways. When an asthma attack occurs, the muscles surrounding the airways become tight and the lining of the air passages swells. This reduces the amount of air that can pass by.
In sensitive people, asthma symptoms can be triggered by breathing in allergy-causing substances (called allergens or triggers).
Common asthma triggers include:
1. Animals (pet hair or dander)
2. Dust
3. Changes in weather (most often cold weather)
4. Chemicals in the air or in food
5. Exercise
6. Mold
7. Pollen
8. Respiratory infections, such as the common cold
9. Strong emotions (stress)
10. Tobacco smoke
Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) provoke asthma in some patients.
Many people with asthma have a personal or family history of allergies, such as hay fever (allergic rhinitis) or eczema. Others have no history of allergies.

• Symptoms

Most people with asthma have attacks separated by symptom-free periods. Some people have long-term shortness of breath with episodes of increased shortness of breath. Either wheezing or a cough may be the main symptom.
Asthma attacks can last for minutes to days, and can become dangerous if the airflow is severely restricted.
Symptoms include:
1. Cough with or without sputum (phlegm) production
2. Pulling in of the skin between the ribs when breathing (intercostal retractions)
3. Shortness of breath that gets worse with exercise or activity
4. Wheezing, which:
5. Comes in episodes with symptom-free periods in between
6. May be worse at night or in early morning
7. May go away on its own
8. Gets better when using drugs that open the airways (bronchodilators)
9. Gets worse when breathing in cold air
10. Gets worse with exercise
11. Gets worse with heartburn (reflux)
12. Usually begins suddenly
Emergency symptoms:
13. Bluish color to the lips and face
14. Decreased level of alertness, such as severe drowsiness or confusion, during an asthma attack
15. Extreme difficulty breathing
16. Rapid pulse
17. Severe anxiety due to shortness of breath
18. Sweating
Other symptoms that may occur with this disease:
19. Abnormal breathing pattern --breathing out takes more than twice as long as breathing in
20. Breathing temporarily stops
21. Chest pain
22. Tightness in the chest

• Signs and tests

Allergy testing may be helpful to identify allergens in people with persistent asthma.
The doctor or nurse will use a stethoscope to listen to the lungs. Wheezing or other asthma-related sounds may be heard. However, lung sounds are usually normal between asthma episodes.
Tests may include:
1. Arterial blood gas
2. Blood tests to measure eosinophil count (a type of white blood cell) and IgE (a type of immune system protein called an immunoglobulin)
3. Chest x-ray
4. Lung function tests
5. Peak flow measurements

• Treatment

The goals of treatment are:
1. Control airway swelling
2. Stay away from substances that trigger your symptoms 
You and your doctor should work together as a team to develop and carry out a plan for eliminating asthma triggers and monitoring symptoms.
There are two basic kinds of medication for treating asthma:
3. Control drugs to prevent attacks
4. Quick-relief (rescue) drugs for use during attacks
Each type is described in more detail below.
Long-term control drugs for asthma are used to prevent symptoms in people with moderate to severe asthma. You must take them every day for them to work. Take them even when you feel okay.
5. Inhaled steroids prevent symptoms by preventing airway swelling. These work very well and are almost always the first choice.
6. Long-acting beta-agonist inhalers also help prevent asthma symptoms. These drugs should be used together with an inhaled steroid drug. It may be easier to use an inhaler that contains both drugs.
Other control drugs that may be used are:
7. Leukotriene inhibitors (such as Singulair and Accolate)
8. Omalizumab (Xolair)
9. Cromolyn sodium (Intal) or nedocromil sodium (Tilade)
Quick-relief (rescue) drugs work fast to control asthma symptoms:
10. You take them when you are coughing, wheezing, having trouble breathing, or having an asthma attack. They are also called "rescue" drugs.
11. They also can be used just before exercising to help prevent asthma symptoms that are caused by exercise.
12. Tell your doctor if you are using quick-relief medicines twice a week or more to control your asthma symptoms. Your asthma may not be under control, and your doctor may need to change your dose of daily control drugs.
Quick-relief drugs include:
13. Short-acting bronchodilators (inhalers), such as Proventil, Ventolin, and Xopenex
14. Your doctor might prescribe oral steroids (corticosteroids) when you have an asthma attack that is not going away. These are medicines that you take by mouth as pills, capsules, or liquid. Plan ahead. Make sure you do not run out of these medications.
A severe asthma attack requires a check-up by a doctor. You may also need a hospital stay, oxygen, breathing assistance, and medications given through a vein (IV).
ASTHMA CARE AT HOME
15. Know the asthma symptoms to watch out for
16. Know how to take your peak flow reading and what it means
17. Know which triggers make your asthma worse and what to do when this happens.
Asthma action plans are written documents for anyone with asthma. An asthma action plan should include:
18. A plan for taking asthma medications when your condition is stable
19. A list of asthma triggers and how to avoid them
20. How to recognize when your asthma is getting worse, and when to call your doctor or nurse
A peak flow meter is a simple device to measure how quickly you can move air out of your lungs.
21. It can help you see if an attack is coming, sometimes even before any symptoms appear. Peak flow measurements can help show when medication is needed, or other action needs to be taken.
22. Peak flow values of 50% - 80% of a specific person's best results are a sign of a moderate asthma attack, while values below 50% are a sign of a severe attack.

• Expectations (prognosis)

There is no cure for asthma, although symptoms sometimes improve over time. With proper self management and medical treatment, most people with asthma can lead normal lives.

• Complications

The complications of asthma can be severe. Some include:
1. Death
2. Decreased ability to exercise and take part in other activities
3. Lack of sleep due to nighttime symptoms
4. Permanent changes in the function of the lungs
5. Persistent cough
6. Trouble breathing that requires breathing assistance (ventilator)

• Calling your health care provider

Call for an appointment with your health care provider if asthma symptoms develop.
Call your health care provider or go to the emergency room if:
1. An asthma attack requires more medication than recommended
2. Symptoms get worse or do not improve with treatment
3. You have shortness of breath while talking
4. Your peak flow measurement is 50% - 80% of your personal best
Go to the emergency room if the following symptoms occur:
5. Drowsiness or confusion
6. Severe shortness of breath at rest
7. A peak flow measurement is less than 50% of your personal best
8. Severe chest pain
9. Bluish color to the lips and face
10. Extreme difficulty breathing
11. Rapid pulse
12. Severe anxiety due to shortness of breath

• Prevention

You can reduce asthma symptoms by avoiding known triggers and substances that irritate the airways.
1. Cover bedding with "allergy-proof" casings to reduce exposure to dust mites.
2. Remove carpets from bedrooms and vacuum regularly.
3. Use only unscented detergents and cleaning materials in the home.
4. Keep humidity levels low and fix leaks to reduce the growth of organisms such as mold.
5. Keep the house clean and keep food in containers and out of bedrooms -- this helps reduce the possibility of cockroaches, which can trigger asthma attacks in some people.
6. If a person is allergic to an animal that cannot be removed from the home, the animal should be kept out of the bedroom. Place filtering material over the heating outlets to trap animal dander.
7. Eliminate tobacco smoke from the home. This is the single most important thing a family can do to help a child with asthma. Smoking outside the house is not enough. Family members and visitors who smoke outside carry smoke residue inside on their clothes and hair -- this can trigger asthma symptoms.
Persons with asthma should also avoid air pollution, industrial dusts, and other irritating fumes as much as possible. 

Drugs used in Tuberculosis

Drugs used in Tuberculosis:-

Bacteria: Mycobacterium Tuberculosis

Drugs, anti TB	Mode of action
Primary agent  Isoniazid  Ethambutol  Rifampin  Pyrazinamide	Ihibits synthesis of mycolic acid Ihibit lipid synthesis Inhibits DNA dependent RNA polymerase unknown
Secondary agents Streptomycin p-amino Salicylic acid (PASA) Cycloserine Ethionamide	Binds to 30s ribosomes, Inhibits polysome formation & misreads m-RNA in protein synthesis Competitive inhibitor of PABA in folate synthesis, Inhibits protein capreomycin synthesis Inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis Probably inhibits mycolic acid synthesis
Alternative agents Rifabutin Quinolones Macrolides	Inhibits DNA dependent RNA polymerase Inhibits DNA gyrase Binds to 50s ribosome and prevents translocation in protein synthesis

Drug Receptor (Pharmacology)

Drug Receptor in the Human Body:::

Property	Ligand gated ion channel (LGIC)/ Ionotropic receptor	G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR)/ Metabotropic receptor	Enzyme linked receptor (ELR)	Nucleic acid receptor
Location	Membrane	Membrane	Membrane	Intracellular nucleus
Sites of drug receptor interaction	Extracellular, intracellular	Extracellular, intracellular	Extracellular	Cytoplasm or nucleus
Effectors	Ion channel	Enzyme or channel	Enzyme	Gene transcription
Coupling	Direct	G-protein	Direct	Via DNA
Time of response	Millisecond	Second	Minutes	Hours
Example	Fast neurotransmitter, GABA, Glutamate, 5 HT3	Slow neurotransmitters, Neuropeptide	Insulin, Growth factor receptor	Steroid, thyroid retinoic recepto

Pharma- Capsule

1. Definition:
Capsules are solid dosage forms in which one or more medicinal and inert ingredients are enclosed in a small shell or container usually made of gelatin.


2. Advantages of Capsules
• Capsules mask the taste and odor of unpleasant drugs and can be easily administered.
• They are attractive in appearance
• They are slippery when moist and, hence, easy to swallow with a draught of water.
• As compared to tablets less adjuncts are required.
• The shells are physiologically inert and easily and quickly digested in the gastrointestinal tract.
• They are economical
• They are easy to handle and carry.
• The shells can be opacified (with titanium dioxide) or colored, to give protection from light.


3. Disadvantages of Capsules
• The drugs which are hygroscopic absorb water from the capsule shell making it brittle and hence are not    
    suitable for filling into capsules.
• The concentrated solutions which require previous dilution are unsuitable for capsules because if
    administered as such lead to irritation of stomach.




4. Raw Materials for Capsules
The raw materials used in the manufacture of both hard and soft gelatin capsules are similar. Both contain gelatin, water, colorants and optional materials such as process aids and preservatives.


1. Gelatin:
Gelatin has been the raw material of choice because of the ability of a solution to gel to form a solid at a temperature just above ambient temperate conditions, which enables a homogeneous film to be formed rapidly on a mould pin.
2. The reason for this is that gelatin possesses the following basic properties:
• It is non-toxic, widely used in foodstuffs and acceptable for use worldwide.
• It is readily soluble in biological fluids at body temperature.
• It is good film-forming material, producing a strong flexible film
• The gelatin films are homogeneous in structure, which gives them strength.


3. Gelatin is a translucent brittle solid substance, colorless or slightly yellow, nearly tasteless and odorless, which is created by prolonged boiling of animal skin connective tissue or bones.




4. Types of materials for filling into hard gelatin capsules:
Dry solids – powders, pellets, granules or tablets
Semisolids – suspensions or pastes
Liquids – non-aqueous liquids

• Empty Hard Gelatin Capsule Physical Specifications

Size	Outer Diameter (mm)	Height or Locked Length (mm)	Actual Volume (mL)	Typical Fill Weights (mg) 0.70 Powder Density
000	9.91	26.14	1.37	960
00	8.53	23.30	0.95	665
0	7.65	21.70	0.68	475
1	6.91	19.40	0.50	350
2	6.35	18.00	0.37	260
3	5.82	15.90	0.30	210
4	5.31	14.30	0.21	145
5	4.91	11.10	0.13	90